Digital Inequality Beyond Access: Family Resources, Learning Agency and Social Development in Hybrid Education

Abstract

Digital inequality in hybrid education extends beyond device ownership and internet access to include differences in family resources, learning agency, and opportunities for social participation. This study examined relationships among these factors using a quantitative, cross-sectional secondary-data design. A cleaned and stratified sample of 500 student records was extracted from the “Student Performance Factors: Insights into Student Performance and Contributing Factors” dataset. Composite proxy indices were constructed for digital inequality, family resources, learning agency, and social participation. Descriptive statistics, group comparisons, correlation analysis, hierarchical regression, and bootstrapped mediation analysis were conducted. Digital inequality was negatively associated with examination performance but showed no significant relationship with learning agency or social participation. Family resources significantly predicted examination performance, whereas learning agency emerged as the strongest positive predictor. Social participation also made a small positive contribution to academic achievement. However, learning agency did not significantly predict social participation and did not mediate the relationships of digital inequality or family resources with social participation. Findings indicate that access alone is insufficient to explain educational inequality. Academic success in hybrid learning contexts depends on material resources, family support, motivation, study effort, attendance, and opportunities for social engagement. Institutions should therefore combine digital provision with targeted support for self-regulation, parental involvement, and inclusive participation.